Class 11 History Chapter 8 Confrontation of Cultures

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NCERT Notes for Class 11 History Chapter 8 Confrontation of Cultures

Class 11 History Chapter 8 Confrontation of Cultures

It examines the encounters between European and the people of the America between 15^th and 17^th Centuries.

Sources

• Manuscripts, logbooks and diaries of the travelers.
• Official records, Monuments, Photographs etc.

Types of American Culture

There were two types of culture in the Americas:

1. Small subsistence economies in the Caribbean region and Brazil like Arawaks.
2. Well- developed cultures like the Aztecs (Mexico).Mayas (Central America) and Incas (Peru in West Coast of South America).

Communities of the Caribbnean and Brazil

• The Arawaks (Bahamas) were lived on a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea.
• Tupinamba lived on the east coast of South America and Brazil.
• They had no access to iron. So they could not clear forests for agriculture. Plenty of fruits, vegetables and fish in their area enabled them to lead a healthy life.
• Brazil-The name Brazil is derived from the brazil wood tree. Mexico-The name after their god Mexitli

The organized state systems in Central and South America

The Aztecs

The Aztecs had migrated from the north into Central America by the12^th century

• Their society was hierarchical and dominated by the nobility.
• The king was chosen from the nobility.
• King was considered as the representative of the Sun.
• Warriors, priests and artisans, etc. were respected sections of the society.
  • They made reclamations-conversion of wasteland into agricultural land.
  • They built artificial islands called chinampas in Lake Mexico.
  • They also constructed canals.
  • They built their capital city of Tenochtitlan in 1325.
  • They built temples which were dedicated to the gods of war and the Sun.
• The rural people produced corn, beans, pumpkin, potatoes etc.
• The peasants were attached to lands of nobles.
• The poor would sell their children as slaves for a limited period of time.
• Slaves could buy back their freedom.
• The Aztecs ensured that all children went to school.
• Calmecac was an institution for the military and religious training of children belonged to the nobility.
• Rest of the children went to the tepochcalli and learned history, myths, religion and ceremonial songs.
• Boys received training in army, trade and agriculture and girls in domestic affairs.
  • By the early 6^th century, the Aztec empire began to decline.
  • The conquered people started rebellion that strained the empire.

The Mayas (11to 16^th Century)

The Mayan culture developed in Mexico, Central America.

• They had less political power compared to the Aztecs.
• Corn Cultivation provided the basis for their culture.
• Several religious ceremonies were based on agriculture.
• Agriculture generated surplus production.
• Surplus production enabled the ruling class to invest in architecture.
• The Mayas developed a pictographic writing system.

The Incas (12^th century)

The largest native culture in South America was Inca Civilization in Peru.

• Manco Capac was the first Inca who established his capital at Cuzco.
• It was under the 9^th Inca that the empire reached its zenith.
• The empire extended from Ecuador to Chile covering 3,000miles.
• The Incas established a centralized administrative system.
• King was the highest source of authority.
• All people were instructed to speak Quechua (court language.)
• Each tribe was administered by a council of elders and loyal to the ruler.
• Local rulers were rewarded for their military co-operation.
• The Incas were great builders. They built roads and forts.
• Their forts were built of stone slabs.
• Stones cut from rock did not require mortar.
• Masons shaped the blocks by using an effective method called flaking
• They did not have wheeled vehicles to transport stones and used labour.
• Agriculture was the basis of the Inca civilization.
• They terraced hillsides and practiced agriculture.
• They also developed means of irrigation.
• The Incas produced corn and potatoes.
• Their weaving and pottery were of a high quality.
• They did not develop a system of writing.
• They developed accounting system.
• Quipu or cords were used for mathematical calculation.
• Knots were made upon cords which indicate specific mathematical units.

Motives of Voyages of Exploration by Europeans

• Invention of Magnetic compass helped voyages to unknown areas.
• Building of larger ships made it possible to carry huge quantity of cargo.
• Circulation of travel literature gave some knowledge of the world.
• Declining economy of Europe and shortage of metallic money affected trade.
• Decline of long distance trade after the conquest of Constantinople by Turks in 1453.
• Higher taxes imposed on trade with the Turks.
• Religious motive of adventurous devout Christian Europeans to spread Christianity.
• Expeditions organized by Henry the Navigator
• Economic motive to increase resources
• Rights of sovereignty over newly conquered territories
• Leaders of expeditions awarded with titles and conquered lands.

The Atlantic Crossing

• Christopher Columbus, an Italian was fond of adventure and glory.
• Sponsored by the Spanish rulers, he set sail from the port of Palos in 1492.
• His fleet was consisted of a small nao(large ship)called Santa Maria and two small ships named Pinta and Nina along with 40 sailors.
• They reached the island of Guanahani in the Bahamas.(He thought that it was India)

• They were welcomed by the Arawaks and they provided food
• Columbus planted a Spanish flag in Guananani (renamed San Salvador) and proclaimed himself as viceroy.
• Then he moved further to the islands of Cubanascan. (Cuba, which he thought that Japan) and Kiskeya(renamed Hispaniola)

• They had to face accidents and hostility of the fierce Carib tribes.
• Their ships were worm eaten and the sailors tired and homesick.
• So they returned back to home and it took 32 weeks.

The achievements of Columbus

• He demonstrates that five weeks sailing with trade wind took one to the other side of the globe.
• He discovered the boundaries of infinite seas.
• It is strange that Columbus is commemorated only in a small district in the USA and in Columbia.
• The two continents were named after Amerigo Vespucci, a Geographer and described them as the ‘New World’.
• The name ‘America’ was first used by a German Publisher in 1507.

Process of the Colonization of America by Spain

• Military might of Spain with the use of gunpowder and horses was the base of Spanish colonization of America.
• The local people were forced to pay tribute or to work in gold and silver mines.
• Local chieftains were forced to explore new lands and sources of gold.
• The Spaniards were greedy and attacked the local people led to the extinction of Arawaks.
• Military repression and forced labour was followed by diseases.
• The Spaniards introduced diseases especially small pox which drastically reduced the indigenous population.

Cortes and the Aztecs

• Hernan Cortes was the conqueror of Mexico
• In 1519, he set sail from Cuba to Mexico.
• He made friends with the Totonacs, a dissent group of Aztecs.
• Montezuma, the Aztec king afraid of gun powder and horses thought Cortes to be the incarnation of exile god to take the revenge.
• Tenochtitlan, the capital subdued on 8 November 1519
• Montezuma became captive in his own palace and Cortes ruled through him for months.
• Cortes installed Christian images in the Aztec temple.
• Cortes returned to Cuba and left the charge to Alvarado.
• Incessant demands for gold by Spanish provoked uprising.
• He ordered a massacre which precipitated rebellion by the people.
• Mysterious death of Montezuma led to suspicion.
• Cuatemoc became the newly elected king.
• The Aztecs believed in omens and them predicting that their fall was imminent and the emperor chose to give up his life.
• The fall of the Aztec Empire was the key event in the formation of New Spain, which would later be known as Mexico.
• Cortes became Captain General of New Spain in Mexico.

Pizarro and the Incas

• Pizarro reached the Caribbean islands in 1502.
• Pizarro made attempts to reach the Inca kingdom from the Pacific
• The Spanish king offered Pizarro the governorship of the Inca lands.
• 1n 1532, Pizarro reached the Inca land and captured the King Atahualpa.
• The king offered a roomful of gold as ransom for his release.
• Pizarro executed the king and looted and occupied the country.

Cabral and Brazil

• Brazil was discovered by Cabral in 1500.
• The king of Portugal divided the coast of Brazil in 14 hereditary captaincies.
• Portuguese were given the right to land ownership and right to enslave local people.
• Portuguese began to produce sugar and sugar cane plantation with the use of slave labour.
• Portuguese king established a government with the capital in Bahia/Salvador.
• Jesuits work led to acceptance of Christianity and strong denial of slavery.

Consequences of Voyages

Conquest, Colonies and the Save Trade

• Uncertain voyages came to have lasting consequences for Europe, America and Africa.
• In 15^th century maritime projects produced knowledge of Sea routes.
• The influx of gold and silver helped expansion of international trade and industrialization.
• Spain and Portugal did not capitalize the profit.
• England and France took advantage of discoveries.
• Huge income invested in trade or building up a merchant navy.
• Merchants formed joint stock companies, sent trading expedition and established colonies.
• They introduced Europeans with the product of the new world like – tobacco, potatoes, cane sugar Cacao rubber and chillies to other countries.
• The immediate consequence was the physical decimation of local population.
• Destruction of native’s livelihood and their enslavement in mines, plantation and mills.

Efforts made to abolish slavery in South America

• Slavery accompanied the emerging capitalist system of production
• Exploitation was essential to economic gain
• Philip II of Spain banned forced labour in 1601.
• Law of 1609 abolished slavery, but settlers compelled king to withdraw the law.
• Now African slaves were imported
• Slavery existed in Africa prior to the entry of the Europeans.
• Even Africans helped in the capture of slave in lieu of crops imported from South America.
• Reassessment of the suffering experienced by African slaves is still going on (Eric Williams in his book Capitalism and Slavery).

South America is called ‘Latin America’

• Spanish and Portuguese languages are the main language of the continent.
• These languages are part of the Latin family of Languages.
• The inhabitants are mostly native European and African by origin.
• People are Catholics and its culture has many elements of native traditions mixed with European ones.

Dona Marina

• Dona Marina was a woman attendant of Cortes who played a role in the Spanish conquest of Aztec Empire.
• She was fluent in three local languages acted as an interpreter for Cortes.
• In his book, The True History of the Conquest of New Spain, Bernard Diaz del Castillo (1495–1584) wrote about this woman.
• He thought that she was a princess, but Mexicans called her ’Malinche’ a word meaning ‘betrayal’.

NCERT Notes for Class 11 History

NCERT Notes for Class 11 History
Chapter 1 From the Beginning of Time
Chapter 2 Writing and City Life
Chapter 3 An Empire Across Three Continents
Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands
Chapter 5 Nomadic Empires
Chapter 6 The Three Orders
Chapter 7 Changing Cultural Traditions
Chapter 8 Confrontation of Cultures
Chapter 9 The Industrial Revolution
Chapter 10 Displacing Indigenous Peoples
Chapter 11 Paths to Modernisation

Key words

Conquistadores: Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru in the 16^th century.

Reconquista: Military reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula by Christian kings from the Arabs in 1492.

Cosmography: A science of mapping the universe. It describes both heaven and Earth.

Reclamation: conversion of waste land into land suitable for habitation or cultivation.

Animism: The belief that natural objects have life and soul

Viceroy: In place of the king

Capitalist system: A system in which the means of production and distribution are owned by individuals or cooperate.